English abstract
This study presents useful methods for quantifying the volumes of water usage, wastewater generation, virtual water export, and wastewater generated by export for six relevant export industries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. These export industries are based in: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Palestinian Territories, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirates (UAE). Results show that approximately 4.26 × 109 m3 of water is used per annum and approximately 1.04 × 109 m3 of wastewater is generated during production by the studied industries in 2011. The difference (3.22 × 109 m3) between the used water and generated wastewater volumes is related to water evaporation or injection underground (oil well pressure maintenance). The net virtual water export of the six studied commodities for the year 2015 from MENA to EU28 [i.e., 28 countries in the European Union] is approximately 3.0 × 108 m3, which is equivalent to approximately 7.05% of the water used by those industries. For example, Saudi Arabia represents the largest net virtual water exporter (approximately 1.25 × 108 m3). Crude oil represents approximately 2.59 × 108 m3 of the net virtual water export; fertilizers represent 6.5 × 107 m3, while pig iron and olive oil represent 3.9 × 105, and 1.3 × 105 m3, respectively. The Saudi Arabian hydrological system is under the greatest pressure externally due to these exports to EU28, where the net virtual water export represents approximately 1.6% of the actual renewable water resources and desalination capacity of this country. In general, this study shows that, in terms of the grey water footprint (GWF), the pollution of water bodies caused by production (year 2011) is relevant for the crude oil, refined petroleum, and olive oil industries, whereas pollution caused by exports to EU28 countries (year 2015) is primarily related to the crude oil industry and olive oil mills. The GWFs for all the six industries caused by production and export are 111.8 × 109 (for the year 2011) and 18.7 × 109 m3/year (for the year 2015), respectively. One importance of the current work is that the specific water uses here could be compared to those of the same industries in developed countries. Based on these comparisons, decisions related to the need for water conservation can be made. The implementation of industrial water conservation in the MENA region could alleviate the pressure on water resources and help mitigate the water problems in the MENA. The time in which these results apply for production and export are the years 2011 and 2015, respectively.
